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Labor  Conditions  and  Wages  in  Street 

Railway,  Motor  and  Wagon 

Transportation  Services 

in  Cleveland 


BY 

RALPH  DOUGLAS  FLEMING 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN  PARTIAL 

FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE 

OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


^i\t  (EnUegieiie  press 

GEORGE  BANT  A  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

MENASHA,  WISCONSIN 

1916 


University  of  Pennsylvania 


Labor  Conditions  and  Wages  in  Street 

Railway,  Motor  and  Wagon 

Transportation  Services 

in  Cleveland 


BY 

RALPH  DOUGLAS  FLEMING 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN  PARTIAL 

FULLFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE 

OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


GEORGE  BANTA  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

MENASHA,  WISCONSIN 

1916 


r 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Part  I    Street  Railroad  Transforation 

Page 

Introduction 1 

Qualifications  for  Employment 3 

City  Versus  Country  Men 4 

Former  Occupations 5 

Age  Requirements 7 

Nationality ; 8 

Promotion 8 

Cash  Deposits 9 

Discipline 9 

Regularity  of  Employment 10 

Accidents 12 

Labor  Unions 13 

Hours  of  Labor 15 

Wages 18 

Educational  Requirements 22 

Part  II    Motor  and  Wagon  Transportation 

Page 

Introduction 24 

Conditions  of  Labor 25 

Nativity  and  Age 27 

Regularity  of  Employment 28 

Union  organization 28 

Hours  and  Overtime 29 

Wages  and  Commissions 30 

Automobile  Repairing  in  the  Schools 33 


STREET  RAILROAD  TRANSPORTATION 

Introduction 

Among  the  activities  which  are  inextricably  woven  into  the  fabric  of 
city  Hfe  there  is  none  which  comes  into  closer  touch  with  the  life  of  the 
average  citizen  than  street  car  transportation.  Although  little  more  than 
half  a  century  old  it  has  had  a  more  rapid  expansion  than  most  indus- 
tries stretching  over  the  same  period  of  time.  Especially  noteworthy  has 
been  its  growth  and  development  since  1900.  The  street  railroad  com- 
panies of  the  United  States,  which  in  1902  employed  over  140,000  persons 
had  by  1907,  increased  this  number  to  221,000;  and  during  the  next  half 
decade  continued  to  expand,  until  their  employees  in  19 12  numbered  over 
282,000  persons. 

One  representative  feature  of  the  growth  of  street  car  transportation 
is  that  it  has  confined  itself  largely  to  the  populous  states.  Ohio,  with 
its  large  number  of  manufacturing  cities,  has  far  more  street  car  lines 
than  Texas  which  is  largely  agricultural.  On  the  basis  of  the  number  of 
employees  in  the  industry,  Ohio  is  surpassed  only  by  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, Massachusetts  and  lUinois.  In  the  order  named,  these  states 
held  the  same  relative  positions  in  both  1902  and  in  1912.  The  propor- 
tion which  Ohio's  street  railway  employees  formed  of  the  total  number 
employed  in  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  increased  from  7.1  per  cent  in 
the  former  year  to  7.5  per  cent  in  the  latter.  In  actual  numbers  the  in- 
crease was  more  marked,  the  number  employed  in  1912  being  21,245  as 
against  9,451  in  1912,  an  increase  of  approximately  125  per  cent. 

As  the  city  of  Cleveland  far  outstrips  in  population  other  cities  in  Ohio, 
it  follows  naturally  that  its  street  car  system  employs  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  men.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1915  there  were  employed  in  this  ser- 
vice approximately  2,500  platform  men  who  were  almost  evenly  divided, 
there  being  50.6  per  cent  for  motormen  as  against  49.4  per  cent  for  con- 
ductors. Owing  to  the  use  of  "trailers"  it  might  naturally  be  supposed 
that  conductors  would  form  the  1  arger  group,  but  that  they  do  not  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  during  certain  hours  of  the  day  motormen 
serve  as  conductors  on  trailer  cars.  These  platform  crews  operated  1,445 
revenue  paying  cars  over  a  system  of  360  miles  of  track,  and  collected  over 
242,000,000  revenue  fares  during  the  year,  for  which  they  were  paid  an  ag- 
gregate amount  of  $2,100,000  in  wages.  Wages  formed  the  heaviest  item 
of  expense  in  street  car  transportation,  and  of  a  car  mile  expense  of  12.6 
cents,  6.6  cents,  or  more  than  one  half  was  spent  on  them. 


2  L.\BOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

Another  distinctive  feature  of  street  railroad  transportation  is  the 
number  of  var>-ing  interests  which  are  concerned  in  it.  Unlike  most 
businesses  which  are  interested  only  in  costs  of  manufacture  and  selling 
price,  the  street  car  service,  according  to  Bion  J.  Arnold  has  five  diverse 
factors  to  satisfy.  They  are:  the  patron,  the  operator,  the  municipality, 
the  property  owner,  and  the  financier.  To  these  we  add  a  sixth  factor, 
the  employee. 

The  patron  wants  an  adequate  service  combining  speed  with  safety. 
He  wants  a  quiet,  easy  riding  car,  well  ventilated  and  heated  in  season, 
with  plenty  of  seats.  He  wants  also  one  fare  from  starting  to  destination 
points  with  a  universal  transfer. 

The  operator  looks  for  up-to-date  equipment  with  track  and  paving 
so  constructed  that  vehicles  are  hindered  or  prevented  from  using  the 
tracks.  He  believes  in  the  regulation  of  street  trafl&c  which  gives  to  the 
street  car  the  right  of  way,  especially  in  rush  hours.  Furthermore,  from 
the  standpoint  of  a  traffic  expert,  the  operator  favors  a  condition  of  opera- 
tion which  permits  of  all  day  travel  in  both  directions,  with  not  too  heavy 
a  rush  at  certain  hours  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  a  service  which 
permits  of  a  large  amount  of  the  profitable  short  haul  business. 

The  municipahty  to  be  adequately  and  ably  served  requires  that  pas- 
sengers shall  be  carried  to  the  business  districts  as  well  as  to  city  limits 
and  suburbs  in  a  minimum  period  of  time  at  a  low  cost  to  the  passengers. 
It  needs  also  to  relieve  the  congestion  attendant  in  mo\'ing  traffic  in  the 
"down  town"  portion  of  its  city.  The  municipality  usually  requires  the 
company  to  furnish  and  maintain  the  pavement  between  the  tracks,  and 
that  which  lies  adjacent  to  the  track,  a  requirement  which  is  a  relic  of 
horse  car  days  when  horses  actually  wore  out  the  part  of  the  pavement 
between  tracks;  sprinkle  streets,  and  reconstruct  road  bed  after  street  im- 
provements are  made.  To  aid  in  beautifying  the  city,  the  municipality 
sometimes  requires  the  removal  of  iron  or  wooden  poles,  and  the  placing 
of  wires  and  cables  underground.  It  usually  requires  free  transportation 
for  certain  employees  as  mail  carriers,  policemen  and  firemen,  and  in  some 
cases  stipulates  that  reduced  rates  for  workmen  and  school  children  be 
provided.  An  indeterminate  franchise  with  the  franchise  value  elimi- 
nated, and  with  the  company  supervised  and  regulated  by  the  city,  com- 
pletes an  ideal  situation  so  far  as  the  municipality  is  concerned. 

The  real  estate  owner  wants  the  best  transportation  facilities  for  his 
own  district  regardless  of  the  rest  of  the  city.  The  man  who  owns  resi- 
dential property  in  the  central  part  of  the  city  wants  the  growth  of  the 
city  confined  to  that  part,  so  far  as  possible,  and  recommends  two  or  more 


QUALiriCATIONS  FOR  EMPLOYMENT  3 

fares  to  outlying  districts  and  suburbs,  while  the  best  interests  of  the  city- 
may  require  extension  of  the  service  to  these  districts  and  the  main- 
tenance of  one  fare  for  the  service. 

The  financier  who  furnishes  the  capital  for  street  car  transportation 
maintains  that  the  fare  be  made  large  enough  to  cover  the  expense  involv- 
ed in  providing  transportation,  with  an  ample  reserve  to  cover  main- 
tenance, depreciation,  damages,  interest  charges,  and  yet  give  a  fair  re- 
turn on  investment. 

Finally  the  employee  believes  that  the  street  railroad  company  should 
furnish  a  shorter  work  day  at  higher  rates  of  pay,  and  extra  pay  for  over- 
time, holiday,  and  Sunday  services.  He  believes,  also,  that  it  should 
grant  vacations  with  pay  to  motormen  and  conductors,  as  it  does  to  office 
employees  and  officials.  It  should,  according  to  this  viewpoint,  better 
generally  the  conditions  under  which  these  men  are  employed. 

The  problem,  then,  to  be  met  is  how  to  obtain  an  equitable  balance  be- 
tween all  these  opposing  factions,  and  yet  furnish  a  service  with  the  maxi- 
mum of  speed,  safety  and  comfort.  The  present  tendencies  of  the  large 
street  transportation  lines  are  to  give  a  higher  standard  of  service  with 
better  lighted,  better  ventilated  and  more  comfortable  cars  than  formerly. 
It  is  beginning  to  be  recognized,  too,  that  additional  investment  is  re- 
quired to  provide  adequate  service,  and  that  extension  of  new  lines  may 
be  built  through  assessments  of  property  owners  along  the  lines  of  the  pro- 
posed routes.  The  crowding  evil  still  persists  at  the  rush  hours  of  the 
day,  and  the  public,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  policy  followed  in  European 
cities,  holds  fast  to  its  claim  that  a  seat  for  every  passenger  is  justified. 
To  this  claim  the  operators  reply  that  the  American  public  is  not  willing 
to  wait  for  the  "next  car,"  but  insists  on  boarding  one  already  over- 
crowded; and  that,  moreover,  if  a  seat  for  every  person  were  provided 
during  the  rush  hours  it  would  require  the  curtailing  of  service  which  is 
now  given  without  profit  during  the  slack  periods  of  the  day. 

Qualifications  for  Employment 

The  platform  positions  of  motorman  and  conductor  demand  men  who 
are  careful,  courteous,  capable,  quick  witted  and  who  are  mentally  and 
physically  able  to  work  long  and  irregular  hours.  Applicants  for  these 
positions  must  be  able  to  speak,  read  and  write  English.  They  must  be 
men  of  sober  habits  and  able  to  act  quickly  in  emergencies,  since  into 
their  care  are  entrusted  the  safety  of  many  people  and  rolling  stock  of 
comparatively  high  values. 


4  LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SER\aCES 

WTien  a  candidate  presents  himself  for  employment  on  the  Cleve- 
land Street  Railway  he  is  interrogated  by  the  employment  agent,  and  if  he 
is  considered  to  be  mentally  and  physically  fit,  he  is  given  an  application 
blank  to  fill  out.  On  the  blank  he  writes  his  name,  address,  birthplace, 
conjugal  condition,  wether  he  uses  liquors  and  cigarettes,  whether  he 
wears  eye  glasses,  trade  or  occupation,  place  of  last  employment  and  what 
capacity,  previous  service  in  any  street  or  electric  railway,  and  if  so  where, 
lengtli  of  service,  reason  for  leaving,  and  length  of  time  longest  position 
was  held.  He  records  also  his  age,  height,  weight,  color  of  hair  and  eyes 
and  physical  condition,  as  well  as  the  name  and  addresses  of  four  com- 
panies previously  worked  for  which  may  be  used  as  references,  together 
with  the  names  of  four  individuals  for  the  same  purpose.  A  photograph 
of  each  applicant  is  taken  and  attached  to  his  application  blank.  The 
applicant  pledges  himself  to  discharge  his  duties  faithfully  and  honestly, 
obey  all  rules,  abstain  from  liquor,  conduct  himself  properly  to  company 
officials,  passengers  and  public,  and  to  pay  for  all  damages  caused  by  his 
carelessness. 

If  the  applicant  for  a  motorman's  or  conductor's  position  is  successful 
he  is  given  a  preliminary^  training,  without  pay,  of  at  least  10  days'  dura- 
tion, during  which  time  under  competent  and  experienced  motormen  or 
conductors  he  is  taught  by  actual  car  operation  the  duties  connected  with 
his  work.  The  prospective  motorman  is  taught  how  to  operate  the  con- 
troller, how  to  apply  and  release  the  brakes  and  other  duties  connected 
with  the  careful  running  of  a  car  through  crowded  streets.  The  conduc- 
tor is  taught  the  names  of  the  streets  and  how  and  when  to  call  them, 
where  stops  are  to  be  made,  when  to  turn  lights  off  and  on,  how  to  act  in 
case  of  accidents,  and  the  various  duties  which  deal  with  the  sale,  col- 
lection and  reporting  of  transfers  and  tickets.  At  the  end  of  each  day 
the  conductor  or  motorman  who  has  served  as  instructor  reports  on  a 
blank  form  the  progress  made  by  the  student,  the  instructor  reporting 
on  the  last  day  certifying  that  the  man  "is  qualified  to  safely  operate  a 
car. "  The  new  man  then  satisfies  the  division  superintendent  as  to  his 
fitness,  after  which  he  is  placed  on  the  extra  hst  as  motorman  or  conduc- 
tor until  the  service  permits  of  his  securing  a  regular  run. 

City  versus  Country  Men 

In  the  selection  of  men  for  platform  positions  some  street  railroad  com- 
panies, in  the  past,  have  preferred  country  bred  men  claiming  that  they 
were  in  better  physical  condition,  more  faithful  and  more  competent,  be- 
sides being  more  used  to  long  hours  and  not  easily  influenced  by  their 


FORMER  OCCUPATIONS  O 

companions.  On  the  other  hand  certain  other  companies  have  preferred 
city  men,  advancing  as  the  reasons,  that  city  men  were  better  educated, 
better  qualified  to  handle  city  people  by  their  ready  understanding  of 
city  ways,  more  able  to  deal  with  difficulties  and  possessing  a  wider  know- 
ledge of  the  city.  In  Cleveland,  recruits  for  these  positions  are  taken 
from  both  city  and  country,  but  the  majority  of  applicants  are  natives  of 
this  city.  The  larger  part  of  the  remainder  is  drawn  from  other  portions 
of  the  state  with  a  sprinkling  from  adjacent  states. 

Former  Occupations 

Applicants  for  employment  in  street  railway  service  are  drawn  from 
all  walks  of  life  with  the  number  applying  usually  in  excess  of  the  posi- 
tions available.  The  wide  range  of  occupations  found  among  applicants 
for  these  positions  is  illustrated  in  Table  1  which  presents  for  the  year 
1915  the  occupations  of  applicants  for  positions  of  motormen  and  con- 
ductors with  the  Cleveland  Railway  Company. 

TABLE    1      OCCUPATION    OF    APPLICANTS    FOR    THE    POSITIONS    OF    MOTOR- 
MEN  ANT)  CONDUCTORS,  CLEVELAND  STREET  RAILWAY 

1915. 

Number  Occupation 

89  Farmers  and  Ranchmen 

70  Laborers 

59  Previous  Electric  Railway  Experience 

56  Machinists  and  Polishers 

42  Teamsters  and  Deliverymen 

34  Soldiers  and  Sailors 

2)2)  Office  and  Shipping  Clerks 

31  Steam  Railroad  Experience 

31  Mercantile  Clerks 

20  Salesmen,  Collectors  and  Solicitors 

12  Repairmen  and  Truckmen 

11  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers 

11  Carpenters  and  Woodworkers 

10  Painters  and  Wall  Paperers 

7  Steam  and  Electric  Railway  Experience 

7  Tailors  and  Pressers 

6  Students  and  Teachers 

5  Butchers  and  Meat  Cutters 

4  Coal  and  Ore  Miners 


6  LABOR  COXDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 


Number  Occupation 

4      Electricians  and  Linemen 
3      Hospital  Attendants 
3      Molders 

3      Stationery  Engineers  and  Firemen 
3      Upholsters  and  Chair  Workers 
3      Plumbers  and  Steam  Fitters 
3      Printers 
2      Seamen 

2      Horse  Shoers  and  Blacksmiths 
2      Telegraphers 
2      Pattern  Makers 
2      Cooks  and  Waiters 
2      Barbers 

Lumberman 

Lamp  Glass  Worker 

Engraver 

Foreman 

Milkman 

Window  Trimmer 

Pottery  Worker 

Jeweler 

Ticket  Agent 

Coremaker  in  Foundry 

Tanner 

Cooper 

Baker 

Horseman 

Mail  Carrier 

Stone  Cutter 

Photographer 


589 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  of  the  589  applications  for  employment,  89,  or  15 
per  cent  of  the  applicants  had  been  farmers,  and  that  70  or  12  per  cent  of 
them  had  been  laborers,  and  that  in  the  49  occupations  tabulated,  the 
range  included  such  diverse  occupations  as  sailors  and  teachers,  horsemen 
and  mail  carriers,  carpenters  and  cooks. 

As  neither  the  position  of  motorman  nor  conductor  requires  any  ex- 
tensive preliminary  training  of  the  applicants  it  is  often  sought  for  by 


AGE  REQUIREMENTS  7 

men  who  have  been  unsuccessful  in  other  occupations.  It  is  commonly- 
believed  that  it  is  a  temporary  job,  tiding  the  man  over  until  he  can  se- 
cure other  employment.  In  the  Cleveland  street  car  service,  however, 
figures  for  1915  belie  this  general  assertion  and  show  that  53  per  cent  of 
the  men  had  served  four  years  and  over;  61  per  cent,  three  years  and  over; 
68  per  cent,  two  years  and  over;  and  82  per  cent  one  year  and  over.  Less 
than  20  per  cent  were  first  year  men. 

Age  Requirements 

Street  car  service  like  a  large  number  of  other  occupations  employs  a 
great  number  of  men  under  45  years  of  age.  Of  933  conductors  reported 
for  Cleveland  by  the  Federal  Census  in  1910,  87  per  cent  were  between 
21  and  44  years  as  against  six  per  cent  who  were  45  years  or  over.  The 
motormen  formed  the  much  older  group.  Of  888  reporting,  80  per  cent 
were  between  21  and  44  years  with  almost  twenty  per  cent  45  years  or 
over.     These  data  are  shown  in  Table  2. 

TABLE  2.      PER  CENT  OF  MOTORMEN  AND  CONDUCTORS  IN  SPECIFIED  AGE 

GROUPS  IN  CLEVELAND,  1910. 

Conductors  Motormen 

Per  cent  under  20  years 7  1 

Per  cent  21  to  44  years 87  80 

Per  cent  45  years  or  over 6  19 

In  most  street  railway  services  a  minimum  and  maximum  age  for 
entrance  is  set  as  well  as  a  maximum  age  for  retirement.  In  Cleveland 
no  one  is  admitted  into  the  service  before  the  age  of  21  or  over  35.  Occa- 
sionally exceptions  are  made  to  applicants,  who,  although  over  the  en- 
trance age,  prove  themselves  exceptionally  fit.  No  maximum  age  for 
retirement  is  set.  As  a  usual  rule  applicants  for  these  positions  are  in 
their  "early  twenties."  Of  110  applicants  received  by  the  Cleveland 
street  railway  in  1915,  three-fourths  were  from  men  25  years  of  age  or 
under,  and  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  applicants  were  30  years  or 
under. 

Table  3  gives  these  age  data  in  detail. 

TABLE  3.      AGE  OF   110  APPLICANTS  FOR  PLATFORM  POSITIONS  IN  STREET 
RAILWAY  SERVICE  IN  CLEVELAND,  1915. 

Age  group  Number  Per  Cent 

21  to  25  years 69  63 

26  to  30  years 22  20 

31  to  35  years 14  13 

Over  35  years 5  4 


Total       110  100 


8  LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

The  proportion  of  married  and  single  men  were  pretty  equally  divid- 
ed, the  number  who  were  single  exceeding  the  number  married  by  five. 
The  figures  were:    single  57,  married  52,  and  one  a  widower. 

Nationality 

As  the  positions  of  motorman  and  conductor  in  street  car  service  re- 
quire the  use  of  the  English  language  a  large  proportion  of  them  are 
filled  with  native  born  men.  In  this  respect  Cleveland  proves  no  excep- 
tion to  other  American  cities.  Of  933  street  railway  conductors  living  in 
this  city  in  1910,  Table  4  shows  that  almost  four-fifths  were  of  native 
birth,  and  that  of  888  motormen  more  than  seven-tenths  were. 

TABLE   4.      NATIVITY   OF    STREET   RAIL\VAY   CONDUCTORS   AND   MOTORMEN 

IN  CLEVELAND,  1910. 

Native  born  Conductors  Motormen 

Per  cent  born  of  native  parents 39  39 

Per  cent  born  of  foreign  parents 40  2)2> 

Per  cent  of  foreign  birth 21  28 

In  110  applications  of  which  reference  has  been  made  100,  or  more 
than  nine-tenths,  reported  the  applicant  as  being  of  native  birth.  Of  the 
10  remaining  applications  three  were  from  applicants  born  in  other  Eng- 
lish speaking  countries. 

Promotion 

Chances  of  promotion  to  higher  positions  in  street  railroad  service  are 
few.  Measured  purely  on  the  basis  of  numbers,  without  regard  to  the 
length  of  their  previous  service,  their  qualifications  for  higher  positions, 
or  the  expansion  of  the  traffic,  the  chance  of  the  average  platform  man  in 
Cleveland,  either  motorman  or  conductor,  for  a  higher  position  is  small. 
There  are  1250  motormen  and  conductors  to  one  superintendent;  416  to 
each  division  superintendent;  89  to  every  dispatcher  and  71  for  each  in- 
spector. 

The  question  of  promotion  is  usually  a  bone  of  contention  between 
the  union  and  the  railway  company.  The  union  advocates  a  standardi- 
zation of  conditions  of  labor  with  the  avowed  aim  of  the  greatest  good 
for  the  greatest  number.  Whatever  prom.otion  is  to  be  given,  it  believes 
should  be  automatic,  and  should  be  gained  through  length  of  service,  or 
what  is  known  as  seniority.  In  fact,  its  agreement  with  the  company 
provides  that  motormen  and  conductors  longest  in  service  shall  have  the 
first  choice  of  runs,  with  the  right  of  selection  to  be  granted  in  May  and 


CASH  DEPOSITS  V 

October  of  every  year;  and  that  whenever  schedules  are  changed,  except 
emergency  schedules,  this  right  of  selection  by  seniority  shall  continue  in 
force.  The  street  railroad  company,  on  the  other  hand,  believes  that  pro- 
motion should  be  given  to  those  of  its  employees  whom  it  considers  cap- 
able of  performing  the  best  service,  without  any  regard  to  length  of  pre- 
vious service.  The  labor  union  and  the  street  car  company  each  wishes 
to  hold  the  loyalty  of  the  men  but  in  this  one  respect  it  is  impossible  for 
the  worker  to  be  loyal  to  both.  That  the  union  recognizes  this  principle 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  whenever  a  motorman  or  conductor  is  promoted 
to  the  higher  position  of  inspector  or  dispatcher,  he  is  obliged  to  sever  his 
connection  with  organized  labor  and  passes  into  a  grade  just  below  the 
minor  officials  of  the  company.  So  far  as  this  one  factor  in  condition  of 
labor  is  concerned,  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  purposes  of  the  street  car 
company  and  the  association  are  at  variance. 

Promotion  in  the  service  to  most  motormen  and  conductors  as  a  usual 
thing  comes  in  the  form  of  better  runs.  These  are  given  according  to 
seniority.  Some  men  prefer  a  daylight  run  which  allows  them  to  have 
the  evenings  to  themselves;  others,  take  what  is  known  as  an  " early-late" 
run  which  permits  them  to  be  off  duty  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  mak- 
ing this  choice,  too,  the  men  are  guided  by  the  number  of  trips  which  they 
can  secure  in  one  day,  since  they  are  paid  on  an  hourly  basis.  As  time 
tables  are  made  up  on  the  basis  of  traffic  requirements  the  opportunities 
for  earnings  run  a  wide  gamut.  There  is  probably  no  greater  amount  of 
variation  in  working  hours  in  any  other  occupations  in  Cleveland  than  in 
those  of  street  car  transportation.  The  increased  chances  for  remunera- 
tion coupled  with  other  desirable  features  which  certain  runs  offer  cause 
them  to  be  looked  upon  as  prizes,  and  when  once  secured  are  considered 
in  the  same  light  as  a  promotion  would  be  in  any  other  industry. 

Cash  Deposits 

Street  railway  conductors  on  entering  the  service  in  various  cities  of 
the  United  States  are  either  required  to  give  a  bond  or  make  a  cash  de- 
posit of  from  $10  to  $25.  In  Cleveland  the  latter  practise  is  followed  and 
a  cash  deposit  of  $20  is  required  to  cover  the  cost  of  tickets,  transfers  and 
change  which  a  conductor  must  carry.  On  leaving  the  service  this  de- 
posit is  returned. 

Discipline 

The  responsibilities,  duties  and  obligations  which  a  street  car  com- 
pany holds  to  the  general  public  places  it  in  a  different  relationship  from 


10         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

that  of  the  ordinary  industrial  estabUshment.  The  street  railroad  is  a 
quasi-public  corporation,  a  public  utility  which  is  given  a  corporate  life 
by  the  state  in  return  for  the  preformance  of  a  certain  ser\dce.  The  con- 
duct of  its  business  is  hedged  about  with  moral  and  financial  restrictions 
as  are  other  public  utilities,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  performing  a  public 
service.  The  very  nature  of  the  responsibilties  attendant  upon  the 
service  requires  that  strict  rules  be  imposed  upon  the  employees  who 
represent  the  corporation  in  its  transactions  with  the  public. 

The  official  relations  between  the  men  and  the  street  railway  company 
in  Cleveland  were  formely  set  forth  in  a  book  of  rules.  This  has  long 
since  been  abandoned  and  any  information  not  contained  in  the  applica- 
tion blank  is  now  given  to  the  men  verbally. 

In  administering  discipline  the  nature  of  the  offense,  the  length  of  ser- 
vice of  the  person  charged  with  the  offense,  and  his  previous  record  are 
all  considered  by  the  division  superintendent.  For  committing  minor 
offenses  such  as  failure  to  be  neat  and  clean  in  appearance,  to  report 
promptly  for  duty,  to  turn  a  car  board  (sign)  on  arrival  at  destination, 
or  to  snap  off  lights  at  the  proper  time,  the  employee  may  meet  with  a 
reprimand.  Such  offenses  as  gross  incivility  to  a  passenger,  causing  an 
accident  which  might  have  been  prevented,  or  indulging  in  liquor  while 
on  duty,  brings  summary  discipline.  If  the  offense  be  considered  suf- 
ficiently serious  by  the  division  superintendent,  the  offender  is  laid  off 
pending  investigation  of  his  case.  If  the  employee  feels  aggrieved  he  may 
have  his  case  taken  up  by  officers  of  the  union  with  the  general  superin- 
tendent, and  failing  settlement  there  with  the  general  manager;  and,  that 
failing,  by  appeal  to  the  president  of  the  company.  In  case  the  matter  is 
not  then  settled,  resort  may  be  had  to  arbitration.  If  the  man  charged 
with  the  offense  is  found  to  be  innocent  he  is  reinstated  in  the  service  and 
paid  for  such  lost  time  as  may  be  decided  upon.  If  he  is  guilty,  and  if 
the  nature  of  the  offense  warrants  it,  he  may  be  discharged  from  the  ser- 
vice, or  he  may  be  temporarily  laid  off  and  later  reinstated. 

Regularity  oj  Employment 

Among  the  many  and  diverse  industries  employing  men  in  Cleveland 
there  is  probably  no  one  in  which  the  working  force  is  maintained  at  a 
more  even  level  than  in  street  car  transportation.  The  service  is  bound 
up  with  the  life  of  the  city  and  must  be  carried  on  uninterruptedly  day 
after  day.  The  chances  for  work,  for  men  on  the  regular  list  are  very 
great,  and  for  some  of  them  it  is  often  a  question  of  over-employment 
rather  than  under-employment. 


REGULARITY  OF  EMPLOYMENT  11 

While  the  work  is  extremely  steady  it  must  be  understood  that  such 
steadiness  does  not  present  a  dead  level  throughout  the  year,  but  varies 
on  certain  days  of  the  week  as  well  as  in  certain  months.  On  each  of  the 
first  five  days  of  the  week  80,000  Clevelanders  are  carried  to  and  from 
various  points  in  the  city,  with  an  additional  10,000  shoppers,  theatre- 
goers and  others  on  Saturday.  On  Sunday  a  smaller  number  of  per- 
sons use  the  cars  than  on  week  days.  In  the  late  spring  and  summer 
months,  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  the  traffic  grows  heavier  and  ad- 
ditional men  are  employed  to  provide  for  the  increase.  Sunday  traffic 
also  gains  in  volume  over  this  period. 

The  needs  of  street  railway  transportation  call  for  a  flexible  service  in 
addition  to  a  regular  one.  For  this  reason  there  are  engaged  what  is 
known  as  extra  men,  which  form  the  "reserve  army"  so  familiar  in  pack- 
ing establishments,  mining  towns,  and  along  water  fronts.  The  extra 
men  are  used  to  keep  the  service  running  smoothly.  If  a  regular  con- 
ductor or  motorman  is  sick  or  absent,  an  extra  man  takes  his  place;  if  a 
rush  occurs  as  it  did  on  a  certain  Sunday  afternoon  last  fall  when  90,000 
people  were  hauled  to  a  city  championship  ball  game,  the  extras  are 
pressed  into  service;  at  certain  rush  hours  in  the  evening  all  the  extras 
available  are  used.  The  company  can  not  afford  to  carry  large  numbers 
of  men  for  whom  it  has  no  regular  work,  and  yet  when  an  unlooked  for 
demand  "out  of  a  clear  sky"  is  made,  it  must  furnish  the  service.  To 
guard  against  such  a  contingency  it  protects  itself  with  the  extra  fist. 
This,  as  Walter  Weyl  points  out,  in  a  report  on  Street  Railway  Em- 
ployment in  the  United  States,  is  essential  to  regular  and  continuous  ser- 
vice, and  while  difficult  for  the  employee  on  account  of  low  earnings  is 
but  a  temporary  hardship  if  advancement  is  rapid.  Unfortunately 
advancement  from  extra  to  regular  is  not  rapid  on  most  lines  in  Cleve- 
land since  the  expansion  of  the  service  does  not  permit  of  it. 

Some  companies,  in  other  cities,  carry  large  extra  lists  which  result  in 
making  the  extra  men  eager  to  secure  a  regular  job,  and  the  regulars  to 
hold  on  with  bull  dog  tenacity  regardless  of  conditions  imposed.  Thus, 
under  such  conditions  there  is  over-employment  on  one  side  and  under  em- 
ployment on  the  other.  Some  men  will  work  long  hours  through  fear  of 
being  supplanted  by  an  extra  without  taking  any  lay-off  over  a  long 
period,  while  others  cannot  work  long  enough  each  day  to  secure  a  living 
wage. 

The  extra  list,  moreover,  has  other  disagreeable  features.  Through 
this  arrangement  the  runs  are  constantly  shifted  making  employment 
uncertain,  hours  of  actual  work  unduly  short,  and  earnings  small.     Each 


12         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

man,  too,  whether  he  is  employed  or  not  must  report  to  the  dispatcher 

every  day. 

Various  suggestions  have  been  offered  as  a  solution  for  this  difficult 
and  important  problem  in  street  traction.  The  union  asserts  that  all 
employees  should  be  guaranteed  a  certain  minimum  hours  of  service  per 
day,  estimated  in  Cleveland  at  five  hours,  which  will  permit  of  the  men 
earning  a  certain  amount.  Others  claim  that  the  solution  rests  with  the 
men  themselves.  By  giving  up  their  seniority  which  secures  to  the  old- 
est men  the  best  runs  and  the  longest  working  hours,  and  dividing  the 
work  evenly  among  all  employees  regardless  of  the  length  of  time  in  ser- 
vice, they  will  all  fare  alike.  Still  others  claim  that  men  employed  in  the 
car  shops  and  in  various  other  capacities  in  car  stations  could  be  "broken 
in"  to  run  cars  in  rush  hours,  and  on  unusually  busy  days,  and  thus  take 
up  the  "slack"  in  the  service  which  is  now  done  by  the  extras.  They 
hold  that  if  the  union  were  to  permit  this,  the  problem  would  solve  itself. 

As  to  regular  conductors  or  motormen,  the  constant  demand  for 
transportation  necessitates  their  working  on  Sundays.  While  volume, 
concentration,  and  destination  of  traffic  differs  on  Sundays  from  that  of 
week  days,  the  demands  made  upon  the  motormen  and  conductors  are 
almost  as  great. 

Following  the  usual  practice  no  vacations  with  pay  are  given  to  motor- 
men  or  conductors  on  the  Cleveland  street  railway.  In  some  cities  com- 
panies lay  off  men  one  day  in  8,  but  in  Cleveland  platform  men  may  lay 
off  whenever  they  choose,  providing  that  the  conditions  of  traffic  will 
allow  it.  They  are  favored  in  other  respects.  If  they  are  "called  and 
not  used,"  that  is,  report  for  duty  and  on  account  of  weather  or  other 
reason  beyond  their  control  perform  no  work,  they  are  allowed  an  hour's 
time  for  so  reporting.  Moreover,  if  a  motorman  or  conductor  reports 
for  work  but  through  no  fault  of  his  own,  does  not  start  until  later,  he  is 
paid  for  the  time  elapsing  until  he  actually  begins  work,  in  addition  to 
being  paid  for  the  time  worked.  Both  of  these  provisions  are  set  forth 
in  the  agreement.  Formely  the  practice  was  to  require  men  to  report 
every  day  and  then  pay  them  only  for  the  time  worked. 

Accidents 

That  employment  on  street  cars  is  nor  considered  a  dangerous  occu- 
pation is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  insurance  companies  consider  street 
car  men  a  first-class  risk.  Compared  with  steam  railroad  occupations 
the  hazard  is  slight. 


LABOR  UNIONS 


13 


Table  5  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Ohio  PubHc  Utihties  Commission 
gives  by  specified  groups  the  number  of  those  killed  or  injured  by  street 
and  suburban  railroads  in  Ohio,  1914.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  almost 
three-fourths  of  those  killed  were  travelers  on  highways  and  that  of  the 
injured  over  two-fifths  were  passengers. 

TABLE    5.      ACCIDENTS    ON    STREET    AND    SUBURBAN    RAILROADS    IN    THE 

STATE  OF  OHIO,  1914. 


Class  of  Persons 


Employees 

Passengers 

Travelers  on  Highway 

Trespassers 

Persons  under  Agreement  or  Contract. 
Others  not  Trespassing 


Total. 


Street    and    Sub- 
urban Railroads 


In  Table  6  is  shown  the  number  killed  and  the  number  injured  by 
street  and  suburban  railroads  in  Cleveland  during  the  year  1914  as  taken 
from  returns  made  to  the  Public  Utilities  Commission.  It  is  noticeable 
in  this  table,  as  in  the  one  preceding,  that  travelers  on  the  highway  form 
the  preponderating  number  of  those  killed,  and  that  passengers,  as  like- 
wise shown  in  the  previous  table,  form  the  largest  proportion  of  those 
injured. 

TABLE  6.   ACCIDENTS  ON  STREET  AND  SUBURBAN  RAILROADS  IN  CLEVE- 
LAND, 1914. 


Cleveland      Rail- 
way Company 

Killed 

Injured 

Employees 

2 

18 

780 

Passengers  

2692 

Travelers  on  Highway 

Trespassers                     

1254 

Total 

20 

4725 

Labor  Unions 

Union  organization  among  street  car  employees  is  accompanied  by 
numerous  difi&culties  which  are  not  met  with  in  the  organization  of  the 


14         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

trades.  In  the  first  place  the  street  cars  are  manned  by  a  class  of  work- 
ers, who,  within  the  course  of  ten  days,  are  trained  to  perform  their  duties. 
This  makes  them  easier  to  replace,  if  need  be,  than  in  such  an  occupation 
as  locomotive  engineering,  which  requires  a  long  preliminary  training. 
As  the  business  of  street  car  companies  is  confined  mostly  to  cities,  a 
large  and  varied  labor  supply  is  usually  at  hand  on  which  to  draw  if  the  oc- 
casion warrants.  In  cases  of  strike  many  of  the  extra  men  who  have  not 
joined  the  unions  are  sometimes  wilUng  to  continue  at  work  in  order  to  be 
placed  on  the  regular  list,  and  thus  increase  their  meager  earnings.  It 
should  not  be  forgotten,  too,  that  a  large  proportion  of  street  railway 
employees  are  recruited  from  among  farmers  or  farm  hands,  occupations 
in  which  any  form  of  organization  is  totally  unknown. 

There  are,  however,  a  certain  number  of  elements  which  make  for 
organization.  As  compared  with  the  garment  trades  in  which  the  work- 
ers are  largely  of  foreign  birth,  speaking  different  tongues,  street  car  oc- 
cupations are  held  almost  wholly  by  men  of  native  birth  who  have  the 
same  ideals  and  use  a  common  speech.  Both  motormen  and  conductors 
are  equal  in  rank,  have  a  common  rate  of  pay,  and  the  same  chances  of 
gaining  the  positions  of  inspector  or  dispatcher,  the  next  highest  in  rank. 
Furthermore,  the  motorman  often  times  is  called  upon  to  act  as  con- 
ductor on  a  "trailer"  and  this  tends  to  unite  more  closely  the  men  in 
the  two  positions.  Finally  the  workers  come  in  contact  with  one  another 
in  the  various  stations,  where  they  may  exchange  views,  and  thus  lay 
the  foundations  in  many  cases  of  a  "camaraderie"  which  is  not  possible 
where  they  are  closely  confined  under  strict  supervision  as  in  a  factory. 

The  nature  of  the  service  required  in  street  car  transportation  early 
brought  forth  a  form  of  organization  such  as  is  found  among  the  United 
Mine  Workers  in  which  all  in  the  industry  regardless  of  occupation  hold 
membership  in  one  body.  This  type  of  labor  organization  is  known  as 
an  industrial  union,  as  contrasted  with  a  trade  union,  in  which  only  men 
in  one  specific  occupation  as  carpenters,  plumbers,  sheet  metal  workers, 
etc.,  are  eligible  to  membership.  Among  street  railway  employees,  this 
form  of  union  held  sway  in  Cleveland  up  to  eleven  years  ago,  when  after 
a  strike  it  was  broken  up,  and  a  union  consisting  only  of  motormen  and 
conductors  was  established. 

Over  ninety  per  cent  of  the  motormen  and  conductors  employed  by 
the  Cleveland  Railway  Company  are  members  of  the  local  association 
which  is  a  branch  of  the  Amalgamated  Association  of  Street  and  Electric 
Railway  Employees  of  America.  A  working  agreement  between  the 
street  car  company  and  the  union  until  May  1,  1916,  or  longer  if  agreed 


HOURS  OF  LABOR  15 

upon,  sets  forth  the  conditions  under  which  work  shall  be  performed.  It 
covers  such  subjects  as  arbitration,  wages,  hours,  discipline,  free  trans- 
portation to  employees,  seniority,  eligibility  of  union  officials  for  service, 
posting  of  schedules,  lay  overs,  drinking,  pay  for  work  when  called  for 
duty  and  not  used,  regulations  for  uniforms,  continuance  of  wages  when 
looking  up  evidence  or  giving  testimony,  loyalty  to  the  company,  etc. 

Following  in  the  footsteps  of  the  great  railroad  brotherhoods  the 
Cleveland  division  of  the  street  railroad  association  endeavors  to  pre- 
vent strikes  by  arbitration.  The  agreement  with  the  local  street  rail- 
road company  provides  that  "Should  any  dispute  arise  between  them 
(the  association  and  the  company)  which  cannot  be  mutually  adjusted, 
the  same  shall  be  submitted  at  the  request  of  either  party,  to  a  board 

of  arbitration and  during  the  arbitration  the  conductors  and 

motormen  shall  continue  the  operation  of  the  Company's  cars." 

The  board  of  arbitration,  the  agreement  sets  forth,  shall  be  composed 
of  three  men:  one  chosen  by  each  of  the  interested  parties  who  in  turn 
select  the  third  arbitrator.  Each  party  must  name  its  arbitrator  in 
fifteen  days  or  forfeit  its  case,  and  the  two  arbitrators  chosen  shall  select 
the  third  within  ten  days  time.  If  the  two  arbitrators  are  unable  so  to  do, 
the  representatives  of  the  company  and  of  the  association  must  with  the 
arbitrators  already  chosen  endeavor  to  agree  on  a  third.  Failing  that, 
the  third  arbitrator  is  appointed  by  the  judge  of  the  United  States 
Court  in  the  Cleveland  district.  The  findings  of  the  Board  are  final  and 
binding  on  both  parties  to  the  arbitration. 

Hours  of  Labor 

Street  railway  transportation,  in  common  with  other  forms  of  trans- 
portation, performs  a  service  which  cannot  be  confined  within  a  uniform 
number  of  hours  like  the  work  of  the  factory  or  store.  Primarily  it 
must  serve  the  public  when  it  is  needed.  A  certain  proportion  of  the 
public  needs  can  be  foreseen  and  provided  for,  but  there  is  always  re- 
maining a  small  proportion  which  cannot  be.  The  street  railroad  com- 
pany is  expected  to  maintain  an  even  balance,  on  the  one  hand  giving 
fair  working  hours  to  its  motormen  and  conductors,  and  on  the  other, 
meeting  the  demands  of  the  public. 

If  the  traffic  of  a  street  car  line  followed  an  even  course  the  running 
time  of  schedules  could  be  easily  arranged.  If  such  a  plan  were  feasible, 
a  traction  man  once  said,  it  would  be  possible  to  carry  passengers  at  a 
one  cent  fare  and  make  a  profit,  but  traffic  of  any  kind  can  never  be  so 
confined,  and  the  Cleveland  street  car  system,  like  that  of  other  large 


16         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

cities,  is  no  exception  to  the  rule.     This  may  be  clearly  shown  by  tracing 
the  cars  per  hour  leaving  any  given  spot  over  a  street  car  line. 

On  the  Superior  Avenue  line  for  example,  the  cars  leaving  the  Cleve- 
land Public  Square  average  from  two  an  hour  to  thirty  an  hour.  The 
traffic  causes  two  "peak  loads" — a  morning  one  from  7  to  8  o'clock  and 
a  heavier  evening  one  from  5  to  6  o'clock.  The  morning  peak  shades  off 
gradually  and  drops  from  twenty-seven  cars  per  hour  between  7  and  8 
o'clock  to  twenty-three  cars  between  8  and  9,  and  to  twelve  cars  an  hour 
from  then  on  until  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  when  it  again  rises.  The 
evening  peak  on  the  other  hand  reaches  thirty  cars  per  hour  between  5 
and  6  o'clock,  falls  sharply  to  sixteen  cars  in  the  next  hour,  and  continues 
to  decline  slowly  until  one  A.  M.  From  this  time  until  5  o'clock  traffic 
is  at  its  minimum  of  two  cars  per  hour. 

It  can  readily  be  seen  that  an  industry  which  is  called  upon  to  furnish 
such  varying  degrees  of  service  must  have  irregular  working  hours  for 
its  employees.  The  maxim  jm  working  hours  to  a  certain  extent  are  set 
by  state  laws  and  working  agree  nents.  The  Ohio  state  lav/  prc/ides  a 
maximum  of  15  consecutive  hours  of  labor  for  a  conductor  or  motorman, 
with  at  least  8  hours  rest  before  being  called  again  for  duty,  unless  an  un- 
avoidable accident  intervenes  to  prevent  it.  The  law  sets  only  the  maxi- 
mum hours  but  the  local  union  in  its  agreement  v^-ith  the  Clevela,nd  R.ail- 
way  Company  has  secured  the  following  rule:  "For  motormen  and  con- 
ductors, all  runs  shall  conform  as  near  to  a  ten  hovir  ^vork  day  as  possible, 
and  no  run  shall  exist  that  cannot  be  completed  inside  of  twelve  consecu- 
tive hours,  with  a  lee-v/ay  of  half  of  a  trip  to  complete  schedules  in  any 
calendar  day  of  24  hours,  with  the  exception  of  swing  runs  which  shall  be 
completed  in  the  shortest  number  of  hours  possible."  It  is  also  pro- 
vided that  if  the  union  can  shov/  how  the  schedules  of  any  line  can  be  im- 
proved by  shorter  hours  and  better  runs,  and  yet  give  the  service  de- 
sired by  the  company  and  required  by  the  needs  of  traffic,  alterations  in 
the  schedules  will  be  m.ade.  Each  motorman  and  conductor,  moreover, 
is  allowed  under  the  agreement  a  four  minute  lay  over  at  the  end  of  each 
round  trip. 

This  agreement,  then,  provides  that  no  man  v/ith  a  regular  run  shall 
work  more  than  12  hours,  and  that  a  reasonable  effort  shall  be  made  to 
enable  him  to  complete  his  work  in  10  hours.  For  the  m.an  on  a  swin^  run, 
or  run  in  which  the  working  hours  are  not  continuous  but  at  regular  inter- 
vals, and  the  man  with  tripper  runs,  or  runs  given  out  by  the  trip  and  not 
no  a  regular  schedule,  the  hours  are  not  only  long  and  irregular,  Ivjt  the 
actual  time  worked  is  sometimes  small. 


HOURS  OF  LABOR 


17 


At  the  last  annual  convention  of  the  street  and  electric  railway  em- 
ployees the  president  of  the  association  in  speaking  of  the  irregular  hours 
made  by  holders  of  swing  runs  and  trippers  said:  "In  many  cases  these 
men  are  compelled  to  cover  a  period  of  from  16  to  18  hours  of  time  in  a 
day  in  order  to  secure  from  3  to  9  hours  of  work.  Especially  is  this  true 
in  the  larger  cities  and  affecting  anywhere  from  20  to  60  per  cent  of  the 
membership  in  the  respective  cities." 

To  improve  this  condition  and  thus  reduce  the  working  hours  of  these 
men,  he  recommended  that  runs  be  established  on  a  percentage  basis, 
reducing  the  continuous  hours  to  a  lower  basis  until  they  were  all  brought 
within  one  period.  By  thus  specifying  a  percentage  basis  for  all  runs  in 
the  agreement,  consecutive  hours  of  labor  are  clearly  established. 

That  better  results  had  not  been  attained  in  shortening  the  hours  of 
holders  of  swings  and  tripper  runs  the  union  president  attributed  to  the 
indifference  of  the  men  who  had  secured  straight  runs  and  were  thereby 
not  affected;  to  the  desire  of  some  men  to  work  a  few  extra  hours  each  day 
in  order  to  secure  the  additional  earnings;  and  to  active  opposition 
evinced  by  some  members  of  the  union  to  having  any  change  made  in 
their  working  hours. 

The  working  time  of  men  employed  as  motormen  and  conductors  in 
Cleveland  is  shown  from  data  which  were  presented  by  the  union  at  an 
arbitration  in  1914.  Table  7  shows  that  of  851  men  employed  on  9  dif- 
ferent lines  in  1914  more  than  one- third  worked  10  hours  or  over;  two- 
fifths  from  9  to  10  hours,  or  combining  these  groups,  approximately  three- 
fourths  of  these  men  worked  9  hours  or  more  per  day.     The  table  follows : 

TABLE  7.      NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT  OF  MEN  WORKING  SPECIFIED  NUMBER 
OF  HOURS  ON  NINE  CAR  LINES  OF  CLEVELAND,  1914. 


Hours 

Number 

298 

340 

114 

16 

83 

Per  Cent 

10  or  over 

35 

9  to  10 

40 

8  to  9 

13 

7  to  8 

2 

less  than  7 

10 

Total 

851 

100 

It  was  also  brought  out  at  this  arbitration  that  these  men  had  been 
paid  for  7744  3^  hours  although  it  took  11,372  hours  for  them  to  com- 
plete their  runs,  thus  causing  them  to  lose  3667  ^  hours  or  over  32  pe- 


18         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

cent  of  their  time.  Each  man  averaged  approximately  13M  hours  on 
duty  with  actual  working  time  a  little  in  excess  of  nine  hours. 

Figures  submitted  at  the  same  arbitration  gave  the  total  number  of 
hours  for  which  994  men  on  nine  lines  were  paid  for  regular  service  and 
rush  trips.  Each  man  of  the  group  secured  an  average  working  day  of 
approximately  eight  hours.  When  the  extra  men  are  included  the  total 
number  employed  on  the  nine  lines  was  raised  to  1148  with  an  average 
working  day  for  each  man  of  six  and  nine-tenths  hours. 

From  the  foregoing  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  the  actual  working  hours 
of  a  conductor  or  motorman  in  regular  service  on  a  schedule  run  are  not 
excessive.  Even  including  rush  trips  a  normal  working  day  is  secured. 
But  when  the  time  lost  is  considered  the  working  day  is  made  unneces- 
sarily long  by  almost  one-third.  Wliile  no  figures  are  available  for  the  time 
spent  on  duty  by  the  extra  men  their  average  hours  on  duty  are  usually 
higher  than  those  of  men  on  regular  schedule,  and  their  average  hours  of 
actual  service,  which  represents  earnings,  much  lower  than  those  given 
for  the  whole  group.  These  men  formed  over  13  per  cent  of  the  total  num- 
ber employed  on  the  nine  lines  for  whom  data  were  submitted,  and  con- 
stituted an  element  on  which  long  hours  on  duty  coupled  with  short  hours 
for  actual  time  worked  bore  very  heavily. 

Wages 

In  the  granting  of  wage  rates  by  street  car  companies  two  different 
plans  are  followed.  In  some,  a  flat  rate  regardless  of  the  period  of  ser- 
vice has  been  adopted;  in  others,  a  sliding  scale  over  a  period  of  years  has 
been  the  plan  chosen.  The  large  majority  of  the  companies  have  es- 
tablished the  latter  method,  paying  the  maximum  wage  in  from  two  to 
ten  years  time.  This  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  wage  rates  paid  to 
the  employees  of  108  divisions  of  the  street  and  electric  railway  employees 
association  on  September,  1915.  In  twenty  five  per  cent  of  the  divisions 
the  maximum  wage  was  paid  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  year  of  service; 
in  19  per  cent  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  and  in  16  per  cent  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  year  of  service.     Table  8  shows  these  data: 


WAGES 


19 


TABLE   8.      PER   CENT   OF   DIVISIONS    OF    STREET   AND   ELECTRIC   RAILWAY 

EMPLOYEES    ASSOCIATION    WHICH    RECEIVE    THE    MAXIMUM    RATE    OF 

PAY  IN  THE  YEAR  ENUMERATED 


Per  Cent 

Year  in  which  maximum  rate  of 
pay  is  received 

25 

sixth 

19 

second 

16 

eighth 

12 

first 

10 

third 

7 

fourth 

7 

fifth 

4 

tenth 

100 

Each  plan  offers  certain  advantages.  Where  the  maximum  rate  of 
pay  is  secured  only  after  a  comparatively  long  period  of  service  it  has  a 
tendency  to  increase  the  loyalty  of  the  men  to  the  company  and  acts  as  a 
partial  deterrent  to  strikes.  Where  the  maximum  is  secured  after  a 
short  period  of  service  it  has  the  advantage  of  placing  the  majority  of 
workers  on  the  same  plane,  and  is  especially  beneficial  to  new  men.  As 
a  usual  rule  street  car  companies  are  favorably  inclined  to  the  plan  which 
requires  a  long  period  of  service  before  the  maximum  wage  is  reached, 
while  the  unions  favor  a  high  minimum  wage  with  the  majority  of  work- 
ers paid  the  same  wage  rates. 

From  the  standpoint  solely  of  wage  rates  the  motormen  and  con- 
ductors of  Cleveland  are  fortunate.  Their  wage  rates  have  not  only 
risen  but  they  are  also  far  above  the  average  paid  in  most  cities.  In 
1903,  motormen  and  conductors  were  paid  22.2  per  hour  but  by  1914  the 
rate  had  increased  to  27  cents  per  hour  for  the  first  year,  and  30  cents 
per  hour  for  the  second  and  all  succeeding  years.  Under  the  1915  agree- 
ment these  rates  were  increased  to  29  cents  per  hour  for  the  first  year  and 
32  cents  for  the  second  and  all  succeeding  years. 

Of  union  wage  rates  for  these  same  cities  there  are  only  6  street  rail- 
way companies  or  5.6  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  enumerated  which 
paid  a  higher  rate  to  motormen  and  conductors  during  the  year  than  did 
Cleveland.  Of  these  cities  which  are  enumerated  in  Table  9  all  started 
the  men  at  a  lower  rate  at  the  beginning  of  their  work  than  Cleveland 
paid,  but  during  the  year  allowed  an  increase  which  equalled  or  exceeded 
the  rate  set  for  this  city. 


20         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPOKTATION  SERVICES 


TABLE   9.      CITIES   IN   WHICH   THE  UNION   RATE   PAID   TO   MOTORMEN   AND 

CONDUCTORS  DURING  THE  FIRST  YEAR  OF  SERVICE  EQUALS  OR  EXCEEDS 

THAT  PAID  IN  CLEVELAND,  SEPTEMBER,  1915. 


City 


Cleveland 

Sharon,  Pennsylvania 

Hubbard,  Ohio 

Detroit 

Newcastle,  Pennsylvania. 

Niles,  Ohio 

YoungstowTi ,  Ohio 

Ypsilanti,  Michigan 


Rate  per  hour 

First  year 

cents 


29 

25-29 
273^-293^ 
25-30 
28-30 
28-30 
28-30 
25-32 


When  maximum  rates  are  considered  only  two  of  the  106  cities  exceed  the 
32  cent  rate  paid  per  hour  to  Cleveland  street  car  men,  and  in  none  of 
these  cities  was  this  rate  granted  before  the  second  year,  which  is  the 
year  in  which  the  maximum  rate  is  reached  in  this  city.  Moreover  in  all 
the  106  cities  there  were  only  7  in  which  the  Cleveland  maximum  rate  an 
hour  was  equalled  or  excelled.    These  cities  are  enumerated  in  Table  10. 

TABLE  10.      CITIES  IN  WHICH  THE  UNION  RATE  FOR  MOTORMEN  AND  CON- 
DUCTORS  EQUALS   OR   EXCEEDS   THE   MAXIMUM   PAID   IN   CLEVELAND, 
AND  YEAR  IN  WTIICH  MAXIMUM  IS  REACHED,   SEPTEMBER,    1915. 


City 


Boston 

CLEVELAND 

Newcastle 

Niles,  Ohio 

Youngstown,  Ohio... 
Ypsilanti,  Michigan. 
Billings,  Montana... 
Chicago 


Maximum 
Rate 


Year 
Granted 


6 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
6 


Wage  rates  paid  per  hour  to  motormen  and  conductors  in  cities  com- 
parable to  Cleveland  on  a  basis  of  population  are  presented  in  Table  11. 


WAGES 


21 


These  data  are  taken  from  the  list  of  106  cities  in  which  union  rates  are 
paid  to  street  railway  employees.  The  cities  range  in  population  from 
670,000  for  Boston  to  233,000  for  Indianapolis  and  are  presented  in 
descending  order  of  population. 

TABLE    11.      UNION    WAGE    RATES,    BY    YEARS,    PAID    TO    MOTORMEN    AND 

CONDUCTORS   IN  CITIES   COMPARABLE  TO  CLEVELAND   ON  A  BASIS   OF 

POPULATION,  SEPTEMBER,  1915. 


City 

Rate  per  hour  by  years 

1 

2 

28K 

32 

32 

24 

25 

24 

23 

3 
29 

25 

2634 

24 

24 

4 

5 

6 

32 

29 
30 

25 
27 

7 

29 
26 

8 

29 
26 

9 

29 

27 

10 

Boston 

CLEVELAND 

Detroit. 

263^4-27 

29 
25-30 

23 

23 
21-22 

21 

29M 

27 
28 
25 
25 

30M 

28 
29 
25 
26 

Buffalo.* 

^0 

Cincinnati 

"78 

Indianapolis. 

*Two  divisions  of  the  street  railway  union. 

From  the  above  table  it  is  seen  that  of  the  six  cities  enumerated  only 
two  pay  the  maximum  reached  in  Cleveland,  and  with  the  exception  of 
Detroit  in  none  is  it  gained  in  such  a  short  period  of  service. 

Comparing  the  wage  rates  of  motormen  and  conductors  with  those  of 
other  comparable  industries  it  is  seen  that  they  are  somewhat  higher  than 
those  for  teamsters,  draymen  and  carters  and  closely  approximate  those 
of  chauffeurs. 

In  the  payment  of  wages  the  street  car  company  is  confronted  with 
a  very  different  situation  from  that  of  any  other  corporation  or  business. 
Of  the  operating  expenses  approximately  three-fifths  go  to  wages  and 
salaries,  in  fact  one-half  of  the  operating  expenses  of  Cleveland's  street 
railway  in  1914  were  spent  in  the  payment  of  wages  to  motormen  and 
conductors  alone.  In  probably  no  other  business  does  the  outlay  for 
wages  reach  such  a  large  proportion.  Moreover  every  increase  in  wages 
bears  heavily  upon  earnings  because  the  rate  of  fare  charged  is  limited 
by  law  or  custom;  because  increase  in  earnings  is  usually  slow,  and  for 
the  reason  that  street  car  companies  are  usually  limited  to  one  source  of 
revenue.  The  only  return  that  the  employee  can  make  is  to  aid  in  re- 
ducing the  number  of  accidents  and  thus  reduce  the  number  of  costly 


22         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

lawsuits.  He  cannot,  as  in  other  businesses,  increase  the  number  of  sales 
and  thus  make  himself  more  valuable  to  his  company. 

As  has  been  shown  in  preceding  tables  the  wage  rates  of  Cleveland 
street  car  service,  in  spite  of  having  a  three  cent  fare  which  is  the  lowest 
in  the  United  States,  are  among  the  highest  of  cities  for  which  data  were 
collected  by  the  street  car  men's  association.  Such  data,  however,  do 
not  show  what  is  actually  earned  by  the  employee.  An  attempt  to  get 
at  the  earnings  of  the  men  is  made  difficult  on  account  of  the  irregularity 
of  the  hours  worked,  the  number  of  runs  made  per  day,  and  the  time  spent 
in  lay-offs.  Taking  the  amount  expended  in  wages  for  the  year  1914, 
and  dividing  it  by  the  approximate  number  of  motormen  and  conductors 
employed,  an  average  yearly  wage  for  motormen  and  conductors  of 
S798.54  is  the  result,  or  monthly  earnings  per  man  of  $66.54.  For  men 
who  work  seven  days  a  week,  ten  hours  a  day,  the  wage  made  during  the 
first  year  on  a  regular  scheduled  run  would  be  $20.30  per  week,  and  the 
second  year  S22.40  per  week  It  is  clear  however,  that  such  a  wage  could 
not  be  earned  steadily  throughout  the  year,  and  represents  maximum 
rather  than  normal  earnings. 

Taking  the  data  submitted  by  the  union  for  851  men  on  9  lines  at 
the  1914  arbitration,  estimating  all  the  men  to  be  in  the  second  year  at 
least  of  regular  service,  the  amount  of  earnings  per  day  of  35  per  cent 
would  be  S3. 20  or  over;  of  40  per  cent  from  $2.88  to  S3. 20  per  day; 
of  13  per  cent  from  $2.56  to  $2.88  per  day;  of  2  per  cent  from  $2.  24  to 
S2.88  per  day;  and  of  10  per  cent  less  than  $2.24  per  day.  These  figures 
do  not  apply  to  Sunday  service. 

It  is  impossible  to  find  the  amount  of  earnings  of  extra  men,  but  taking 
the  data  submitted  at  the  same  arbitration  for  1148  men,  in  which  143 
extras  are  included,  the  average  daily  wage  estimated  for  the  first  year 
of  service  would  be  $2.00,  and  for  the  second  year  $2.20  per  day. 

Educational  Requirements 

The  transportation  situation  for  the  street  railway  has  many  points 
of  analog}'  with  that  of  the  steam  railroad.  To  a  few  men  are  entrusted 
the  operation  of  rolling  stock  and  the  hves  of  passengers  which  represent 
a  high  value,  and  upon  them  rests  the  responsibility  of  protecting  the 
car  from  accident  and  transporting  the  passengers  quickly  and  safely. 
It  is  very  evident  that  training  is  required  for  the  men  who  operate  cars, 
and  that  the  railway  company  merely  as  a  protective  measure,  if  for  no 
other  reason,  must  give  that  training.  Moreover,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
steam  railroads,  the  street  railroad  is  better  fitted  to  train  men  learning 


EDUCATIONAL  REQUIREMENTS  23 

the  work  of  motormen and  conductors  than  any  other  agency;  and  again 
as  in  the  case  of  the  steam  raihoad,  the  street  raihoad  company  gives  the 
instruction  expeditiously,  thoroughly  and  at  the  least  possible  expense. 
This  training  also  serves  as  a  weeding  out  process  reserving  to  the  com- 
pany only  those  whom  it  considers  physically  and  mentally  capable  of 
doing  the  work.  In  transportation  occupations,  as  in  many  others,  the 
requisite  knowledge  can  be  gained  only  by  actual  practice. 

Coming  now  to  the  actual  "book  knowledge"  required  of  the  appli- 
cant it  may  be  said,  that  once  more  as  in  steam  railroad  occupations,  a 
knowledge  of  the  "three  R's"  is  sufficient  educational  groundwork  for 
the  positions  of  motorman  or  conductor.  The  application  blank  makes 
no  mention  of  any  educational  requirements,  naturally  presupposing 
that  the  person  who  fills  in  the  blank  is  able  to  read  and  write  the  Eng- 
lish language.  He  must  also  understand  the  fundamental  processes  of 
arithmetic,  and  be  familiar  with  the  coinage  of  the  country.  Most  of  the 
men  employed  on  the  Cleveland  street  cars  have  had  a  common  school 
education,  but  few  have  had  more  than  that. 

For  the  higher  positions  in  the  service,  no  further  educational  train- 
ing is  considered  necessary  than  that  given  for  the  platform  positions, 
nor  do  men  with  greater  education  than  that  supplied  by  the  common 
school  have  any  advantage  in  gaining  a  higher  rank.  Fitness  for  the 
work  and  a  certain  trait,  a  sort  of  sixth  sense  which  enables  a  man  to 
reach  a  solution  of  transportation  problems  and  meet  all  emergencies 
such  as  blockades,  rerouting,  etc.,  quickly  and  effectively,  and  which 
no  amount  of  training  or  education  can  fully  supply,  are  considered  more 
important  as  qualifications,  for  higher  positions  in  street  railway  trans- 
portation than  are  educational  qualifications.  "The  school  of  experi- 
ence" for  these  occupations  is  looked  upon  as  the  most  important  single 
element  in  fitting  the  man  to  the  position,  and  in  qualifying  him  for  high- 
er ones. 


MOTOR  AND  WAGON  TRANSPORTATION 
Introduction 

The  carriage  of  goods  by  motor  or  horse  drawn  vehicles  over  country 
roads  and  city  streets  is  the  most  expensive  of  all  forms  of  transportation. 
The  people  of  the  United  States  spend  each  year  over  $50,000,000  on  im- 
port freights  by  water^  $2,000,000,000  on  transportation  of  commodi- 
ties by  rail,  and  probably  more  than  total  of  those  two  sums  for  cartage.'^ 
What  Cleveland  pays  each  year  for  cartage  and  drayage  is  unknown  but 
it  is  probable  that  the  amount  is  far  in  excess  of  that  spent  in  supporting 
the  various  departments  of  the  city  government. 

In  the  work  of  collection  and  delivery,  vehicles  of  some  sort  or  des- 
cription are  part  and  parcel  of  every  business.  The  use  of  motor  driven 
vehicles  has  increased  so  of  late  until  the  prediction  that  the  20th  cen- 
tury is  to  be  a  "horseless  age"  seems  to  give  promise  of  early  accomplish- 
ment. In  Cleveland  and  its  environs  alone,  some  27,000  gasoline  or  elec- 
trically propelled  vehicles  were  operated  in  1915,  and  for  the  year  1916  it 
is  predicted  that  their  number  will  increase  to  30,000. 

It  is  customary  to  consider  all  drivers  or  chauffeurs  of  the  various  kinds 
of  vehicles  which  we  see  every  minute  of  the  day  plying  thru  our  crowded 
streets  as  doing  the  same  kind  of  work.  A  close  analysis,  however,  shows 
that  their  duties  vary  widely.  While  common  to  all  forms  of  industry, 
drivers  and  chauffeurs  have  their  duties  almost  as  clearly  differentiated 
as  those  of  other  employees  in  the  same  establishment. 

The  men  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  For  those  in  the  first 
class  some  form  of  driving  or  teaming  is  the  essential  element  of  their 
work.  This  class  is  represented  by  chauffeurs  and  drivers  for  express 
companies  and  transfer  companies,  draymen,  carters,  teamsters,  and 
men  employed  by  moving  and  storage  companies,  heavy  and  light 
teaming  companies,  and  all  other  concerns  whose  principal  work  it  is  to 
move  from  one  place  to  another  goods  of  every  description.  The  sec- 
ond class,  which  is  a  far  larger  one,  includes  chauffers  and  drivers  for  the 
various  kinds  of  stores,  businesses  and  industries  in  which  the  moving  of 
raw  materials  or  finished  products  while  necessary  to  the  business  is  sub- 
sidiary to  it.     In  this  group  also  would  be  included  the  large  number  of 

•Ocean  Shipping,  by  the  National  Foreign  Trade  Council,  Pp.  25-30. 
» Speech  of  Secretary  of  Commerce  Redfield,  Austin,  Texas,  and  Newark,  N.  J. 
1914-1915. 


CONDITIONS  OF  LABOR  25 

grocerymen,  milkmen,  bakers,  and  other  small  tradesmen  who,  in  the 
residential  sections  of  every  city,  are  engaged  in  the  sale  of  food  products 
and  other  necessities. 

The  importance  of  these  occupations  is  shown  to  some  degree  by  the 
numbers  engaged  in  them.  It  is  estimated  that  there  were  in  Cleveland 
in  1915,  3886  draymen,  teamsters  and  expressmen,  and  656  chauffeurs, 
making  a  total  of  over  4500  men.  When  we  include  public  and  private 
chauffeurs,  drivers  of  horse-drawn,  gasoline,  and  electric  trucks  and  wag- 
ons, the  number  of  men  employed  in  Cleveland  in  this  work  would  ap- 
proximate 5000. 

Conditions  of  Labor 

Motor  driven  vehicles,  either  electric  or  gasoline,  have  long  since  passed 
the  experimental  stage  and  are  being  used  in  practically  every  form  of 
industry.  The  electric  is  essentially  a  city  type  of  vehicle.  It  cannot 
be  used  extensively  in  country  work  on  account  of  the  recharging  of  the 
batteries  which  must  be  done  at  service  stations  or  garages  after  a  com- 
paratively short  mileage  has  been  made.  It  has  the  advantage,  however, 
of  being  clean,  easy  to  operate,  and  of  a  speed  confined  to  about  ten  miles 
an  hour.  It  is  largely  used  in  the  delivery  of  retail  merchandise.  The 
gasoline  truck  or  wagon  has  a  far  wider  use  in  all  kinds  of  delivery  work 
and  various  kinds  of  trucking.  In  suburban  and  long  haul  service  it  has 
little  competition  from  either  horse-drawn  or  electric  vehicles,  greater 
speed  than  either  of  them,  and  almost  unlimited  carrying  capacity.  Its 
fuel,  gasoline,  can  be  secured  almost  anywhere. 

The  use  of  horses  and  wagons  is  constantly  lessening.  In  some  forms 
of  retail  business  in  which  many  stops  must  be  made  in  covering  a  route 
such  as  in  delivering  ice,  milk,  etc.,  the  use  of  the  horses  and  wagons  is 
still  considered  the  most  economxical  practice. 

In  practically  all  establishments  in  which  motor-drawn  trucks  have 
supplanted  horse-drawn  vehicles  the  drivers  have  become  the  chauffeurs. 
The  driver  understands  the  delivery  part  of  the  work  and  with  a  little 
training  at  the  hands  of  a  competent  instructor  soon  becomes  proficient 
in  operating  the  truck.  In  the  case  of  a  local  company  which  purchased 
a  number  of  motor  trucks  a  former  driver  was  instructed  in  motor  truck 
driving  in  less  than  a  week  by  a  representative  of  the  company  from  which 
the  trucks  were  purchased.  The  driver  in  turn  instructed  a  helper  who 
was  put  on  the  second  truck  purchased. 

In  some  cases  in  which  large  companies  go  over  to  the  use  of  motor 
drawn  vehicles  entirely,  the  drivers  are  sent  to  the  automobile  factory  of 


26         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

the  company  furnishing  the  vehicles  to  be  instructed  by  an  expert  in  the 
various  stages  of  automobile  construction.  The  parts  entering  into  such 
construction  and  their  proper  care  is  explained  and  the  results  of  neglect. 
The  physical  operation  of  the  truck  is  also  gone  into  in  detail.  Then,  in 
a  few  days,  the  men,  accompanied  by  instructors,  are  taught  to  handle  the 
trucks  in  crowded  traffic,  and  how  to  properly  lubricate  and  adjust  them. 
After  the  men  have  operated  the  trucks  for  a  short  time  they  are  examined 
by  a  representative  of  the  service  department  of  the  automobile  company 
furnishing  them,  and  this  examination  is  repeated  at  stated  intervals.  If 
certain  parts  of  the  truck  are  not  properly  oiled  or  cared  for,  according 
to  previous  instructions,  the  driver's  attention  is  called  to  it.  He  is  also 
given  a  book  of  instructions  for  keeping  the  truck  in  good  running  order. 

An  experienced  chauffeur,  besides  the  actual  operation  of  his  car  or 
truck,  is  usually  expected  to  make  minor  repairs  and  simple  adjustments 
and  to  lubricate  the  running  parts.  In  businesses  in  which  a  large 
"fleet"  of  cars  or  trucks  is  used  all  but  very  minor  repairs  are  made  by 
repairmen.  Where  but  one  or  two  motor  vehicles  are  used  the  driver 
does  more  of  the  repair  work,  but  those  repairs  which  need  an  expert  re- 
pairman are  usually  made  at  a  service  station  or  general  repair  shop. 

As  in  all  other  occupations,  the  chauffeur  or  teamster  needs  certain 
general  qualifications  and  certain  special  ones  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  work  in  which  he  is  engaged.  Among  the  general  qualifications  nec- 
essary for  this  class  of  workers  are  physical  fitness,  alertness,  sobriety, 
carefulness,  honesty,  and  reliabiUty,  besides  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
city  streets  and  city  ordinances  relating  to  traffic. 

The  nature  of  the  business  is  the  influencing  factor  in  determining 
special  qualifications.  The  chauffeur  of  a  delivery  wagon  must  be  able 
to  so  route  his  packages  as  to  be  able  to  get  over  his  territory  in  the 
shortest  possible  time.  He  needs  also  to  be  neat  and  courteous  to  patrons 
of  the  company  for  he  is  its  representative. 

The  chauffeur  or  driver  of  an  express  wagon  or  transfer  wagon  must 
be  punctual  since  in  his  work  time  is  an  essential  element.  Failure  to 
deliver  a  consignment  of  fruit  which  reaches  the  consignee  too  late  for 
market  may  mean  the  loss  of  a  large  amount  of  money.  A  passenger's 
baggage  which  fails  to  catch  the  proper  train  may  cause  the  traveler  no 
little  inconvenience. 

For  men  in  charge  of  heavy  teaming  some  knowledge  of  a  mfllwright's 
duties  is  necessary,  for  in  many  cases,  pieces  of  machinery,  or  a  whole 
factory  equipment,  must  be  dismantled,  loaded  and  unloaded  and  set  in 
the  place  assigned.  For  this  work  some  knowledge  of  blue  print  reading 
is  necessary. 


NATIVITY  AND  AGE  27 

Some  drivers  and  chauffeurs  have  to  be  salesmen.  Drivers  who  deal 
with  retail  trade  in  laundry  work,  bake  shop  products,  milk,  ice,  bottled 
beer,  groceries  and  other  commodities  of  household  use  especially  need 
this  selling  ability.  For  these  men,  the  delivery  of  the  goods  is  only  in- 
cidental. As  in  the  case  of  the  average  salesmen  these  men  need  to  be 
obliging,  honest,  prompt  and  able  to  sell  their  wares  They  are  expected 
not  only  to  hold  the  business  of  the  district  allotted  to  them  but  also  to 
increase  it.  In  most  cases  their  earnings  depend  in  large  measure  upon 
their  success  as  salesmen. 

Private  chauffeurs  form  another  class  to  be  considered.  Before 
automobiles  were  as  mechanically  perfect  as  they  are  today,  chauffeurs 
were  drawn  from  the  trained  mechanic  class.  This  is  still  true  to  some 
extent  in  Cleveland.  In  families  in  which  a  large  number  of  cars  are  kept 
the  chauffeur  is  in  the  nature  of  an  automobile  mechanic  and  makes  many 
of  the  repairs  besides  thoroughly  overhauling  the  cars  once  a  year.  More- 
over as  Cleveland  is  an  automobile  manufacturing  center,  it  is  not  un- 
common for  automobile  purchasers  to  secure  their  chauffeurs  from  the 
company  which  builds  the  cars. 

The  chauffeur  who  is  employed  by  the  family  with  one  automobile 
is  differently  situated  from  the  chauffeur  with  the  family  having  a  num- 
ber of  cars.  In  the  former  instance  he  resembles  in  many  ways  the  old- 
time  family  coachman.  He  sweeps  the  walk,  cuts  and  waters  the  grass, 
fetches  wood,  washes  windows,  etc.,  in  addition  to  his  regular  duties. 
He  is  supposed  to  make  minor  repairs  but  cannot  always  do  so. 

Nativity  and  Age 

The  occupations  of  draymen,  teamsters  and  expressmen,  as  well  as 
that  of  chauffeurs,  in  Cleveland,  belong  to  what  may  be  called  native 
American  occupations  for  the  reason  that  in  them  the  native  born  form 
the  preponderating  number.  Of  3352  draymen,  teamsters  and  express- 
men in  Cleveland  in  1910,  httle  more  than  one-third  were  of  foreign 
birth,  and  of  566  chauffeurs  less  than  three-tenths  were  born  abroad. 

These  same  occupations  employ  many  young  men.  Two-thirds  of 
the  draymen,  teamsters  and  expressmen  noted  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph were  between  the  ages  of  21  and  44,  and  of  the  chauffeurs  four- 
fifths  of  the  number  came  within  this  group. 

In  addition  to  being  largely  native  born  and  comparatively  young  as 
a  class,  local  teamsters  and  chauffeurs  are  mostly  Cleveland  men  since 
one  of  the  qualifications  necessary  is  a  knowledge  of  the  city  and  of  its 
streets. 


28         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

Regularity  of  Employment 

Regularity  of  employment  at  best  is  but  a  relative  term  so  far  as  in- 
dustrial occupations  are  concerned.  Compared  with  all  industrial  oc- 
cupations followed  in  Cleveland  those  of  teamsters  are  fairly  steady;  com- 
pared with  other  outdoor  occupations,  which  is  a  more  equable  compari- 
son, they  are  probably  the  steadiest. 

Among  the  industries  reported  by  the  industrial  establishments  in 
Cuyahoga  county  to  the  state  Industrial  Commission,  the  fluctuation  in 
employment,  during  the  calendar  year  1914  for  employees  of  thirty- 
seven  cartage,  drayage,  storage  and  livery  companies  amounted  to  13.6 

per  cent. 

When  compared  with  the  yearly  fluctuations  in  other  industries  which 
vary  from  less  then  three  per  cent  in  certain  personal  service  occupations 
to  over  83  per  cent  in  street,  road  and  sewer  construction,  teamsters 
stand  well  up  on  the  list.  When  checked  against  the  degree  of  fluctua- 
tion in  other  outdoor  occupations  the  contrast  is  still  more  striking.  In 
marble  and  stone  work  the  amount  of  fluctuation  of  employment  is  50 
per  cent,  and  in  ship  building  and  amusement  parks  75  per  cent. 

Union  Organization 

In  Cleveland  there  are  branches  of  the  International  Brotherhood  of 
Teamsters,  Chauffeurs,  Stablemen  and  Helpers  established  among  the 
truck  drivers,  van  drivers  and  furniture  handlers,  taxi  chauffeurs,  beer 
drivers,  ice  wagon  drivers  and  helpers,  pop  and  selzer  drivers,  sanitary 
drivers  (garbage  collectors)  and  recently  the  laundry  drivers.  The 
membership  in  these  branches  has  not  been  made  public.  A  member- 
ship fee  of  $10  to  $15  is  charged  in  some  locals  with  a  monthly  assess- 
ment of  SI. 00. 

In  addition  to  the  teamsters  and  chauffeurs  union  there  is  a  local  or- 
ganization of  a  social  nature  known  as  the  Ohio  Automobile  Operators 
Association.  The  association  has  a  membership  of  750  men,  mostly 
chauffeurs  in  the  employment  of  private  automobile  owners,  and  public 
chauffeurs. 

The  chauffeurs  union  has  done  much  to  further  the  interest  of  its 
members.  It  has  been  able  to  narrow  the  duties  of  the  teamster  in  most 
cases  to  that  of  driving,  and  while  not  able  to  abolish  overtime  work, 
it  has  secured  wage  rates  to  be  applied  when  overtime  work  is  called  for. 
Furthermore,  instead  of  a  driver  being  paid  by  the  hour  or  by  the  job  the 
union  has  been  able  to  secure  weekly  wage  rates.  Provision  is  made  for 
seasonal  trades  b}^  allowing  the  employment  of  extras  and  helpers  who 


HOURS  AND  OVERTIME  29 

are  sometimes  paid  by  the  hour  or  day.  A  minimum  wage  in  most  in- 
stances has  been  set  with  the  terms  of  agreement  not  to  affect  any  higher 
wage  which  is  paid.  Wage  increases  in  many  cases  in  such  agreements 
are  secured  by  seniority  or  length  of  service.  Where  some  sort  of  premi- 
um system  or  comission  system  prevails,  the  unions  endeavor  to  have  as 
generous  a  rate  of  commission  allotted  to  the  drivers  as  is  possible  to 
secure;  and  wherever  bonding  is  required  to  have  the  employing  com- 
pany pay  the  charge  made  by  the  bonding  company.  It  also  endeavors 
to  have  the  companies,  as  in  department  store  deliveries,  stand  any  loss 
of  merchandise  instead  of  charging  it  up  to  the  drivers. 

Hours  and  Overtime 

The  hours  of  teamsters  of  late  years  have  been  very  materially  re- 
duced. This  is  due  in  part  to  the  efforts  of  the  union  which  have  been 
instrumental  in  getting  the  extra  work  abolished.  Teaming  and  driving 
has  been  one  of  the  few  occupations  in  which  division  of  labor  has  been 
only  partly  carried  out.  As  shown  by  Professor  Commons  in  "The  Chi- 
ago  Teamsters"  the  work  of  the  stableman  was  in  many  cases  taken  over 
by  the  teamster,  presenting  the  paradoxical  situation  of  a  city  occupa- 
tion to  which  the  farmer's  work  of  "caring  for  the  stock"  still  clung.  In 
most  Cleveland  establishments  using  horses  and  wagons  to  any  extent, 
these  duties  are  attended  to  by  stablemen  and  the  only  extra  work  re- 
quired of  the  drivers  is  to  hitch  up  and  unhitch  their  teams.  The  stable- 
men also  perform  all  Sunday  work. 

With  the  coming  of  motor  trucks  a  large  number  of  drivers  became 
chauffeurs,  and  the  extra  work  required  of  them  is  small.  In  businesses 
using  a  large  number  of  motor  vehicles,  repairmen  or  garage  foremen  see 
that  the  trucks  are  oiled,  adjusted  and  kept  in  good  order,  and  even  in 
establishments  where  the  driver  is  required  to  take  care  of  his  truck  or 
wagon  the  work  consumes  but  a  few  extra  minutes  and  no  time  on  Sunday. 

The  hours  worked  in  Cleveland  by  drivers  of  either  horse-drawn  or 
motor  vehicles  depend  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  business  in  which  the 
driver  is  employed,  and  also  upon  whether  the  union  is  recognized  or  not. 
In  certain  industries,  however,  in  which  no  form  of  union  organization 
prevails  among  the  drivers,  union  hours  of  labor  are  observed.  A  work- 
ing day  of  10  hours  with  a  working  week  of  60  hours  is  the  accepted  stan- 
dard of  agreem.ent,  except  that  for  sanitary  drivers  (garbage  collectors) 
and  one  local  of  the  bottled  beer  drivers  union,  a  working  day  of  eight 
hours  and  a  working  week  of  48  hours  is  the  union  provision.  Drivers, 
barn  bosses,  and  foremen  employed  by  ice  companies  work  six  hours  on 
Sunday  in  addition  to  10  hours  on  each  week  day. 


30         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

The  hours  of  unorganized  drivers  range  from  10  to  12  a  day.  In 
those  dealing  with  retail  trade  such  as  milk,  bread,  laundry  work  and  pro- 
visions they  are  sometimes  irregular  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  drivers 
must  take  the  time  necessary  to  cover  their  routes  which  often  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  business  being  done.  In  milk  and  bread  de- 
livery the  work  is  done  largely  in  the  early  morning  hours,  and  but  one 
trip  made  per  day.  In  laundry  and  grocery  delivery  the  hours  of  work 
vary  with  the  days  of  the  week  with  Saturday  as  the  heaviest  day.  Dri- 
vers in  some  lines  of  express  service,  notably  the  commission  house  trade, 
begin  work  as  early  as  four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  work  by  short  re- 
lays throughout  the  day.     Each  man  averages  about  11  hours  a  day. 

As  in  railroad  transportation  teamsters  and  drivers  in  certain  forms 
of  businesses  have  had  to  accommodate  themselves  to  its  needs  or  to  long 
established  customs  which  have  prevailed  in  it.  While  this  irregularity 
of  hours  which  results  cannot  be  totally  eliminated,  the  unions  have  en- 
deavored to  mitigate  the  evil  by  requiring  pay  for  overtime.  For  auto 
van  drivers,  chauffeurs,  furniture  packers,  warehousemen  and  drivers  of 
horse-drawn  vehicles  in  Cleveland  the  union  rate  for  overtime  is  time 
and  a  quarter,  and  if  they  are  called  upon  to  work  Sundays  or  holidays 
double  time  is  demanded.  Truck  drivers  and  chauffeurs  of  either  horse- 
drawn  or  motor-drawn  trucks,  riggers,  and  keg  and  bottled  beer  drivers 
receive  time  and  half  time  for  overtime  work  with  double  time  on  Sun- 
days and  certain  stipulated  hohdays  with  pay.  In  the  case  of  ice  wagon 
drivers,  barn  bosses  and  foremen,  overtime  is  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  30 
cents  per  hour  with  a  stipulated  day  of  six  hours  on  Sundays. 

Wages  and  Commissions 

The  wages  of  teamsters  and  drivers  of  various  kinds  of  commercial 
vehicles  in  Cleveland  may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  those  in  which  a 
regular  wage  is  paid,  and  those  in  which  some  form  of  commission  or  pre- 
mium is  given  in  addition  to  the  regular  wage. 

Wage  rates  are  on  a  monthly,  weekly,  daily  and  hourly  basis  ac- 
cording to  the  practise  followed  in  the  industry.  In  some  large  establish- 
ments in  Cleveland  such  as  express  companies,  transfer  and  taxicab  com- 
panies the  wage  rates  are  usually  from  $50  to  $75  a  month.  In  families 
in  which  private  chauffeurs  are  employed  the  wage  is  also  on  a  monthly 
basis  and  varies  from  $40  to  $100  a  month,  with  an  average  of  approxi- 
mately $75.  Weekly  wage  rates  range  from  S12  to  $20,  and  day  rates 
from  $2.25  to  $3.  On  an  hourly  basis  the  minimum  according  to  union 
scales,  is  19.17  cents  and  the  maximum  50.00  cents. 


WAGES  AND  COMMISSIONS  31 

In  certain  industries  in  Cleveland  which  have  to  do  with  retail 
trade  the  wages  paid  are  low,  but  the  drivers  make  as  much  on  commis- 
sions as  they  do  in  wages.  In  one  establishment  the  drivers  are  paid  a 
dollar  a  day  with  5%  commission  on  all  business;  in  another,  $9  a  week 
and  commissions  on  business  which  in  many  cases  amount  to  as  much  and 
in  some  cases  more  than  the  wages.  Drivers  who  deliver  bottle  beer 
receive  23^  cents  per  case  of  empty  bottles  returned.  It  is  the  practice, 
too,  in  some  businesses  at  times  to  offer  money  prizes  to  the  driver  se- 
curing the  greatest  amount  of  new  business  within  a  certain  period.  In 
taxi  cab  driving  the  tips  are  said  to  amount  to  as  much  as  $10  or  $12  a 
week,  and  they  also  form  a  certain  part  of  the  earnings  of  drivers  of 
transfer  companies'  wagons. 

In  comparing  wages  of  drivers  of  horse-drawn  and  power- propelled 
vehicles  in  Cleveland,  the  union  rate  paid  to  truck  drivers,  32.50  cents 
per  hour,  is  slightly  higher  than  that  given  to  drivers  of  horse  drawn 
trucks.  In  the  latter  case  it  ranges  from  19.17  cents  per  hour  for  a  light 
single  team  to  29.17  cents  per  hour  for  a  3  horse  truck.  Riggers  and 
some  drivers  in  the  brewers  union  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  rates 
for  riggers,  fifty  cents  an  hour,  are  the  highest  of  any  of  these  occupations. 
In  general  the  wages  earned  by  the  driver  of  motor-drawn  trucks  are 
slightly  higher  than  those  paid  to  drivers  of  horse-drawn  trucks,  especial- 
ly if  the  trucks  are  of  large  horse  power.  This  is  true  only  of  gasoline 
trucks  and  not  of  electrics  in  which  case  the  wages  approximate  those  paid 
the  average  teamster,  driver  or  deliveryman. 

In  table  12  are  given  the  union  wage  rates  per  hour  of  teamsters  and 
truck  drivers  in  Cleveland  in  1915. 

TABLE    12.      UNION    WAGE    RATES    OF    CHAUEFEURS    AND    TEAMSTERS    IN 

CLEVELAND,  1915. 

Teamsters  cents 

Teamsters  helpers 25.00 

Horse-drawn  vehicles 26.27 

Sanitary  drivers  helpers 28.13 

Warehousemen 30.00 

Furniture  packers 30.00 

Auto  van  drivers 30.00 

Sanitary  drivers 31.25 

Chauffeurs 33.33 

Soft  drink  drivers 33.33 


32         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES 

Ice  Handlers  and  Helpers  * 

Drivers,  water  wagon 24.24 

Drivers,  regular  route  wagon 27.27 

Drivers  motor  truck 27.27 

Drivers,  2  horse  drawn  trucks 27.27 

Drivers,  3  horse  drawn  vehicles 27.27** 

Barn  boss 33.33 

Foreman 33.33 

Brewery  Workers 

Drivers,  bottled  beer,  routes 28.07*** 

Drivers,  extra  keg  beer 31.48 

Drivers,  bottled  beer 35.42*** 

Drivers,  keg  beer 37.04 

Truck  Drivers 

Light  single 19.17 

Heavy  single 20.83 

Light  double 22.50 

Chauffeurs'  helpers 24.17 

Two  horse 25.83 

Three  horse 29.17 

Chauffeurs 32.50 

Riggers 50.00 

*  Drivers'  helpers  and  drivers  of  special  wagons  $2  a  day. 
**  After  first  six  months  of  service  an  increase  of  $2  a  week. 
***A  commission  of  2}/^  cents  per  empty  case  returned. 

When  the  question  of  wages  is  considered  from  another  viewpoint — 
that  of  the  proportion  in  specified  wage  groups  in  an  industry,  reference 
is  made  to  data  collected  by  the  state  Industrial  Commission  for  the 
year  1914.  Of  thirty-seven  establishments  engaged  in  cartage,  drayage 
storage  and  livery  in  Cuyahoga  county  employing  872  men,  more  than 
two-fifths  received  weekly  wages  of  $15  but  less  than  $18,  and  more  than 
one- third  were  paid  $12  but  less  than  $15  per  week.  Expressed  in  terms 
of  percentages   and  arranged  in  wage  groups  these  proportions  were: 

Men  earning  less  than  $10  a  week 5.5  per  cent 

$10  but  less  than  $12 6.5    " 

$12  but  less  than  $15 35.3    " 

$15  but  less  than  $18 42.7    " 

$18  but  less  than  $25 9.3    " 

$25  but  less  than  $35 0.7    " 


Total    100.0 


LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES  33 

Automobile  Repairing  in  the  Schools 

Like  the  youngster  in  "Helen's  Babies"  who  ruined  a  perfectly  good 
timepiece  in  the  endeavor  to  find  "what  made  the  wheels  go  wound," 
so  almost  every  school  boy  is  likewise  curious  about  automobile  construc- 
tion and  mechanism.  Moreover  with  the  constantly  increasing  use  of 
the  electric  and  gasoline  automobile  there  has  been  a  consequent  demand 
for  men  to  do  repair  work  on  them.  Such  courses  are  usually  given  by 
Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  and  automobile  schools. 

Three  private  schools  in  Cleveland  at  present  give  courses  in  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  the  automobile.  They  are  given  to  day  and 
night  classes,  range  in  price  from  $30  to  $60,  and  take  usually  from  six 
to  eight  weeks  to  complete.  The  three  schools  have  probably  an  enroll- 
ment of  100  to  150  students.  Some  of  the  students  are  of  foreign  birth 
and  a  number  of  them  are  drawn  from  nearby  towns  and  villages. 

In  giving  instruction  these  schools  follow  somewhat  different  meth- 
ods. In  one  a  large  part  of  the  instruction  consists  in  doing  repair  work 
under  the  guidance  of  foremen  with  lectures  on  special  subjects  by  men 
in  the  trade.  The  method  of  instruction  in  the  other  schools  is  by 
lecture  and  shop  practice  in  alterating  order.  The  students  are  taught 
the  parts  of  the  car  and  their  operation  by  dismantling  and  assem- 
bling various  types  under  the  guidance  of  instructors. 

The  technical  high  schools  of  Cleveland  can  be  of  service  in  this  field 
by  introducing  an  elective  course  in  automobile  repair  work  open  to  third 
and  fourth  year  students  which  would  teach  the  fundamental  principles 
involved  in  automobile  construction.  Such  a  course  could  also  be  given 
to  night  school  students.  The  basic  principle  of  this  course  should  be, 
not  to  turn  out  finished  repairmen  as  skilful  as  journeymen,  but  to  give 
a  course  of  training  so  that  if  the  occupation  is  followed  after  graduation, 
quicker  progress,  keener  perception,  and  more  thoro  workmanship  will 
result  than  if  the  worker  entered  the  occupation  untrained  or  insuffi- 
ciently trained.  The  theory  necessary  for  an  understanding  of  repair 
work  could  be  well  taught  in  such  a  course,  and  this  cannot  be  acquired 
by  a  worker  in  the  average  shop.  The  importance  of  "knowing  why" 
which  is  the  correct  interpretation  of  theory  is  shown  by  the  criticism  of 
a  sales  manager  of  an  automobile  service  department  who  stated  that  his 
men  in  a  large  number  of  instances  did  things  mechanically  and  did  not 
"mix  brains  with  their  work." 

It  would  be  possible  in  a  school  course  in  repair  work  to  teach  to  best 
advantage  by  having  the  students  dismantle  and  assemble  an  automobile 


34         LABOR  CONDITIONS  AND  WAGES  IN  TRANSPORTATION  SER\  ICES 

in  order  that  they  might  learn  the  operation  and  use  of  each  part  which 
enters  into  its  construction.  A  wrecked  car  might  be  purchased,  dis- 
mantled by  the  students,  under  the  direction  of  an  instructor,  and  reas- 
sembled under  his  guidance.  The  students  by  following  this  method 
would  learn  the  use  and  operation  of  each  part  entering  into  automobile 
construction.  They  would  gain,  also,  a  critical  insight  which  comes  with 
all  forms  of  actual  constructive  work. 


-I'- 


UNivERsrrv  of  illinois-urbana 


.-,*.'■  v..  i*C',; 


^ 


